Messaging applications specifically engineered with open-source code, decentralized network architectures, and mandatory end-to-end encryption without metadata logging are widely considered more secure and private than WhatsApp. Prominent examples include Signal, Session, and Threema, which do not require phone numbers for registration, do not collect extensive user metadata, and prioritize strict anonymity. While WhatsApp utilizes the Signal protocol for message encryption, its ownership by Meta and its collection of extensive user account metadata lead privacy advocates to recommend decentralized or non-profit alternatives for maximum digital security.